The incidence of Kaposi’s sarcoma (KS) in sub-Saharan Africa has increased since the advent of the HIV epidemic, contributing an estimated 37,214 cases and 25,352 deaths annually [1]. While incidence and mortality have decreased in high-income countries with the introduction of antiretroviral therapy (ART), low-income countries have seen the opposite, especially those in sub-Saharan Africa that carry heavy burdens of HIV. Over the same period in which the West saw a 24-fold decrease in incident KS, Uganda and Zimbabwe experienced a 20-fold increase in KS incidence among HIV-infected individuals [2, 3]. This has been attributed to the rise of HIV/AIDS and the lack of antiretroviral therapy, which has been shown to be crucial for KS tumor regression, decreasing viral loads, and raising CD4 counts. [4–9]. Because of these factors, KS is now the most common cancer among HIV-infected men in SSA and the second most common in women after cervical cancer [1].

In Uganda, KS contributes 3,635 annual incident cases with 2,637 annual deaths [1]. Previous research has pointed to a lack of coverage with ART, gender differences, and high seroprevalence of human herpesvirus type 8 (HHV-8), the causative agent of KS, to explain poor patient outcomes in Uganda [9–11]. ART coverage in the Country remains below 50 percent, and persistent KS has been noticed despite prompt treatment with ART [12]. Other patients have experienced immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS) after the initiation of ART, causing a proliferation of KS [13]. While these explanations offer some insight into the poor patient outcomes for KS patients in Uganda, numerous factors remain unexamined, particularly those concerning the health system and access to cancer care for KS patients.

Diagnostic delay has been assessed as a health system factor that can influence cancer stage and patient prognosis among specific cancers in developed countries [13–17]. One type of delay that has been shown to be associated with poor patient prognoses is “primary” delay, defined as waiting longer than three months after noticing signs and symptoms before presentation to a clinician [18–20]. Other types of delay are traditionally defined as secondary delay, the time from presentation to a clinician until diagnosis, and tertiary delay, the time from diagnosis to initiation of treatment [18]. A search of the literature did not reveal any known associations between KS stage with diagnostic delay at any stage in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Further, we could not find an analysis of this association with respect to HIV-associated malignancies in any context. Therefore, the primary aim of this study was to measure the association between primary delay and the cancer stage of HIV-KS patients upon diagnosis of the disease by a clinician. We hypothesized that those who experienced primary delay would be more likely to present with late-stage KS than those who did not delay.

From June 22 to October 30, 2012, 178 consecutive AIDS-associated KS patients treated at the Uganda Cancer Institute as out-patients were approached for participation; 168 agreed to participate and 7 surveys were discarded due to data quality issues (90% response rate). Sixty-nine percent were men, and the mean age was 34 years (SD: 7.7) with a slightly lower age distribution for women, although the mean age was not significantly different between men and women (p = 0.13). Fifty-eight (35%) of all participants were unemployed, and 49 percent had at least a primary education. Among all participants, 149 (93%) had previously received some form of treatment at an HIV clinic upon admission to UCI, and 106 (72%) of all participants were taking antiretroviral therapy (ART). Of those, 77 had been exposed to ART for at least three months prior to enrollment. Twenty-six percent of all participants reported visiting a traditional healer prior to their admission to UCI (Table 1).

Among all patients, 73 (45%) experienced primary diagnostic delay longer than three months (Table 2). Among those who delayed, 26 (36%) waited for more than 6 months, while 18 (25%) waited for more than 12 months prior to seeking medical attention for KS-related symptoms. Lack of pain (48%), lack of money for transportation (32%), and distance to UCI (8%) were cited as the most common reasons for delay. In addition, 46 (29%) had an overall poor risk as their KS stage upon admission (Table 2). Ninety-two percent of all patients presented with poor risk in the tumor extent category (T), 40% of patients had a CD4 count less than 150 cells/microliter, categorizing them as poor risk with respect to immune system function (I), and 73% had poor risk with respect to presence of systemic illness (S). In multivariate analysis after adjusting for gender, age, income, and exposure to ART, patients who experienced diagnostic delay were more than three times as likely to have poor-risk stage at presentation compared to those who did not delay (OR 3.41, p = 0.002, 95%CI: 1.46-7.45) (Figure 1, Table 3).

	Total
	N	%
Primary delay
<3 Months	88	54.7
≥ 3 Months	73	45.3
Overall stage risk
Good risk	115	71.4
Poor risk	46	28.6

Multivariate analyses were also performed to measure associations between patient characteristics and experiencing diagnostic delay. After adjusting for gender, age, income, ability to pay out-of-pocket, and previous HIV clinic attendance, only visitation to a traditional healer was associated with experiencing diagnostic delay (OR 2.69, p = 0.020, 95% CI: 1.17-6.17). Previous HIV clinic attendance and duration on ART were not associated with delay (Figure 2, Table 5).

Early diagnosis of cancer is an aim of cancer care and control programs worldwide, especially among LMICs that are experiencing a burgeoning cancer burden. This is particularly true for cancer care for HIV-associated malignancies that can leverage current HIV programs to detect cancer faster. Measuring delay can be an important step in better understanding patient outcomes, particularly in the context of under-resourced health systems. While numerous studies have offered theoretical frameworks for understanding delay, few have measured these delays across the entire continuum from first notice of signs and symptoms until treatment [18, 24]. Moreover, to the best of our knowledge, none have examined delays and their influence on cancer stage or patient outcomes in resource-poor areas or delays with respect to HIV-associated malignancies in any context.

In response to this gap in understanding, this study measured the association between primary delay and the cancer stage upon admission among Kaposi’s sarcoma patients in Uganda. Our findings suggest, first, an association between primary delay and the KS cancer stage upon admission to a cancer referral center, and second, that delay can be a key point of intervention to improve overall KS stage risk. In this study, HIV-infected KS patients who experienced primary delay were more than three times as likely to have an overall poor stage risk at presentation compared those who did not experience primary delay. It is still unclear, however, how delay for KS patients and the effect of these delays in Uganda compares to other cancers given the dearth of data and inadequacy of comparing studies assessing cancer in high-income countries only [25–27].

Our study found far more patients (92%) presented with poor risk KS in the tumor extent category than in other studies, which suggest approximately 64% present with poor-risk disease [22, 28]. However, these studies also lack comparative power since they evaluated patients in high-income settings. Later stage at diagnosis in our study is most likely reflective of diagnostic delay related to health system factors, especially concerning the role of traditional healers and the need for improvement among HIV health workers to recognize KS symptoms, as the majority of the cohort was previously exposed to HIV care. Much of the success in treating KS in high-income countries has been attributed to effective HIV referral systems that recognize KS signs and symptoms, along with widely available ART [26, 27, 29–31].

Rates of secondary and tertiary delays were lower in this cohort than in other studies [24, 28]. These findings suggest that once primary delay is overcome, the health system at UCI performed better than those in comparable studies with respect to minimizing secondary and tertiary delay. These results should be interpreted with caution, however, as a large majority of the cohort (89%) experienced at least one type of delay and 8% experienced delay at every stage, leading to additive, lengthy delays across the care continuum. Further work should be done to examine the causes for lengthy delays at each point of the care continuum and role of the health system in creating delays.

The only patient characteristic associated with diagnostic delay in multivariate analysis was visitation to a traditional healer, which has been acknowledged in the literature as a competing source of healthcare and as a possible marker of poorer outcomes for cancer patients [29]. Traditional healers remain an important part of Ugandan societal norms, and results from this study suggest that working with traditional healers might present an important point of intervention to reduce delay.

Other results reveal an important opportunity for early KS detection that may be overlooked. A large proportion of this cohort was already exposed to the healthcare system via HIV care prior to admission to UCI. Though many patients developed signs and symptoms while seeking HIV care, they still experienced primary delay. As those patients enrolled in HIV care were no less likely to delay, this may present another opportunity for intervention. HIV/AIDS treatment programs have strategically leveraged their care infrastructure to target non-communicable diseases, but our data suggest more work needs to be done to ensure appropriate screening in this at-risk population [31]. Our study was not designed or powered to examine the relationship between HIV care and delay, but we did find that 93% of patients received some sort of treatment at an HIV clinic before admission to the UCI and that at least 41 patients (25%) were actually in HIV care when they developed signs and symptoms of KS, and 15 (37%) of these patients waited longer than three months before presenting to a clinician for those symptoms. Our study was not designed to analyze this finding that came out of our study, and more research is needed to examine the influence of previous HIV care on delay among KS patients in Uganda.

Our study is subject to limitations. Possible sources of bias include recall bias in determining delay and selection bias by interviewing patients only at a central referral center, potentially missing those were severely ill or those who improved on ART alone in their local clinic. The study only included out-patients, which may have led to an underrepresentation of severely ill patients. In addition, this represents one of the first studies implementing the ACTG staging system in a low-income setting with a population exposed to ART, and previous literature has shown that modification in staging for this population is necessary [23]. More research on the staging in the post-ART area is needed not only for KS, but other cancers as well [22, 23, 28, 31].

In conclusion, reducing delay can be an important point of intervention for improving KS outcomes in Uganda. This is especially true for AIDS-associated malignancies with faster progression. In addition, leveraging traditional healers and pre-existing HIV referral system infrastructure to screen for cancer may be possible solutions. Finally, further investigations should examine the efficacy of KS staging in low-income settings of high ART exposure. While significant challenges exist for KS control in Uganda, these findings identify key interventions that can target inefficiencies in the health system and increase local cancer knowledge for faster KS referrals and better patient prognoses.

Written informed consent was obtained from the patient for the publication of this report and any accompanying images.